### Gröbner bases in Haskell: Part II

In the previous post we discussed the representation of variables, monomials, and monomial orderings in a toy EDSL for polynomial computations groebner. In this post, we are going to consider how polynomials are represented in the EDSL and implement the Gröbner basis algorithm.

## Polynomials

A term is a monomial times a coefficient (an element of some ground ring r):

data Term r v o = T r (Monomial v o) deriving (Eq, Show)


Terms as well as monomials form a monoid:

instance (Num r, Ord v) => Monoid (Term r v o) where
mempty = T 1 mempty
T a m mappend T b n = T (a * b) (m mappend n)


Polynomials are represented as lists of non-zero terms, ordered in descending order by the their monomials with respect to some monomial order. This makes equality test and extraction of the leading monomial very simple and cheap:

newtype Polynomial r v o = P [Term r v o] deriving Eq

lm :: Polynomial r v o -> Monomial v o
lm (P ((T _ m):_)) = m
lm (P [])          = error "lm: zero polynomial"


The relative order of terms does not change if the polynomial is multiplied by a term:

(*^) :: (Num r, Ord v) => Term r v o -> Polynomial r v o -> Polynomial r v o
u *^ P vs = P [ u mappend v | v <- vs ]


Polynomials have degree: the degree of the zero polynomial is usually defined to be -1, and the degree of a non-zero polynomial is the maximum of the degrees of its monomials:

instance Ord v => HasDegree (Polynomial r v o) where
degree (P []) = -1
degree (P ts) = maximum [ degree m | T _ m <- ts ]


We are trying to make the display of polynomials as close to the mathematical notation as possible. Because we don’t know what the ground ring r can be, we apply some heuristics:

instance (Eq r, Show r, Num r, Ord v, Show v) => Show (Polynomial r v o) where
show (P [])     = "0"
show (P (t:ts)) = showHead t ++ showTail ts
where
showHead (T c m) = prefix ++ show m
where
prefix = case c of
1  -> ""
-1 -> "-"
_  -> show c
showTerm (T c m) = prefix ++ show m
where
prefix = case signum c of
1  -> '+':a
-1 -> '-':a
_  -> "(" ++ show c ++ ")"
a = if abs c == 1 then "" else show (abs c)
showTail = concatMap showTerm


Arithmetic operations on polynomials are defined to preserve the invariant of the representation of polynomials:

instance (Eq r, Num r, Ord v, Show v, Ord (Monomial v o))
=> Num (Polynomial r v o) where
f@(P (u@(T a m):us)) + g@(P (v@(T b n):vs))
| m == n && a + b /= 0
= let P ws = P us + P vs in P $T (a + b) m:ws | m == n && a + b == 0 = P us + P vs | m < n = let P ws = f + P vs in P$ v:ws
| otherwise
= let P ws = P us + g in P $u:ws f + P [] = f P [] + g = g P (u:us) * P (v:vs) = let P ws = P us * P vs + u *^ P vs + v *^ P us in P$ (u mappend v):ws
_ * P [] = P []
P [] * _ = P []

negate (P ts) = P $[ T (negate a) m | T a m <- ts ] -- Inclusion of 'abs' and 'signum' into 'Num' was a stupid idea. abs _ = error "abs is undefined for polynomials" signum _ = error "signum is undefined for polynomials" fromInteger = constant . fromInteger  Constants can be viewed as polynomials (of degree 0 unless the constant is 0): constant :: (Eq r, Num r, Ord v) => r -> Polynomial r v o constant 0 = P [] constant c = P [T c mempty]  Variables can be viewed as polynomials of degree 1: variable :: (Num r, Eq v) => v -> Polynomial r v o variable x = P [T 1 (inject x)]  Suppose that $f$ and $g$ are two polynomials over a field $r$, and let $x^\alpha$ and $x^\beta$ be the leading monomials of $f$ and $g$ respectively. Let $x^\gamma$ be the least common multiple of $x^\alpha$ and $x^\beta$. Then the s-polynomial of $f$ and $g$ is defined to be $\displaystyle \mathrm{spoly}(f, g) = x^{\gamma-\alpha}f - \frac{\mathrm{lc}(f)}{\mathrm{lc}(g)}x^{\gamma-\beta}g$ where $\mathrm{lc}$ denotes the leading coefficient of a polynomial. In Haskell: spoly :: (Eq r, Fractional r, Ord v, Show v, Ord (Monomial v o)) => Polynomial r v o -> Polynomial r v o -> Polynomial r v o spoly f@(P (u@(T a m):us)) g@(P (v@(T b n):vs)) = n' *^ f - m' *^ g where n' = T 1 (complement m n) m' = T (a / b) (complement n m)  ## Normal Forms and Gröbner Bases A normal form of a polynomial $f$ with respect to a list $s$ of polynomials is essentially the remainder from multivariate division of $f$ by polynomials from the list $s$. It is computed using Buchberger’s algorithm. Instead of explaining the algorithm in words, I’ll let the code speak for itself. The following definition is in fact very close to the pseudo-code that can be found, for example, in A Singular Introduction to Commutative Algebra: nf :: (Eq r, Fractional r, Ord v, Show v, Ord (Monomial v o)) => Polynomial r v o -> [Polynomial r v o] -> Polynomial r v o nf f s = go f where go h | h == 0 = 0 | [] <- s' = h | (g:_) <- s' = go (spoly h g) where s' = [g | g <- s, lm h isDivisibleBy lm g]  The function groebner implements the Gröbner basis algorithm. It takes a list of generators of an ideal and returns a Gröbner basis of that ideal: groebner :: (Eq r, Fractional r, Ord v, Show v, Ord (Monomial v o)) => [Polynomial r v o] -> [Polynomial r v o] groebner i = go i ps where ps = [(f, g) | f <- i, g <- i, f /= g] go s [] = s go s ps@((f, g):ps') | h == 0 = go s ps' | otherwise = go (h:s) (ps' ++ [(h, f) | f <- s]) where h = nf (spoly f g) s  ## Product Criterion The product criterion allows us to decrease the number of pairs that have to be considered by the Groebner basis algorithm. The criterion says that if the least common multiple of the leading monomials of $f$ and $g$ is their product, then the s-polynomial of $f$ and $g$ reduces to 0 with respect to the set $\{f, g\}$, and hence the pair $(f, g)$ can be dropped. We implement a function pc that tests if two polynomials f and g satisfy the product criterion as follows: pc f g = null (variables (lm f) intersect variables (lm g))  Note that instead of computing the least common multiple of the leading monomials of f and g we check if the sets of variables occurring in each of the monomials are disjoint. The optimized version of the Gröbner basis algorithm reads as follows: groebner :: (Eq r, Fractional r, Ord v, Show v, Ord (Monomial v o)) => [Polynomial r v o] -> [Polynomial r v o] groebner i = go i ps where ps = [(f, g) | f <- i, g <- i, f /= g, not (pc f g)] go s [] = s go s ps@((f, g):ps') | h == 0 = go s ps' | otherwise = go (h:s) (ps' ++ [(h, f) | f <- s, not (pc h f)]) where h = nf (spoly f g) s  ## Declaring Variables Having to define an enumeration type and to write an Enumerable instance for it in order to declare variables is tedious. Here we address this problem. First, let us define the sum of types a and b: data a :<: b = Inl a | Inr b deriving (Eq, Ord) infixr 6 :<: instance (Show a, Show b) => Show (a :<: b) where show (Inl x) = show x show (Inr x) = show x  It will become clear shortly why we have chosen to denote the sum by :<:. If both a and b are enumerable, then so is the sum of a and b: instance (Enumerable a, Enumerable b) => Enumerable (a :<: b) where enumerate = map Inl enumerate ++ map Inr enumerate  Note that the elements of a are enumerated before the elements of b. We can now define each variable as a singleton type: data X = X data Y = Y data Z = Z  and join these types into X :<: Y :<: Z. Each of the types X, Y, Z is Enumerable: instance Enumerable X where enumerate = [X] instance Enumerable Y where enumerate = [Y] instance Enumerable Z where enumerate = [Z]  Hence, the type X :<: Y :<: Z is Enumerable too. It is isomorphic to data XYZ = X | Y | Z  However, the elements of X :<: Y :<: Z are somewhat unwieldy to write: Inl X, Inr (Inl Y), and Inr (Inr Z). We solve this problem by the trick used in Data types à la carte. We introduce the following typeclass that expresses the fact that a type a is a subtype of a type b: class Sub a b where inj :: a -> b  Instead of writing the injections using Inl and Inr, the injections will be inferred using this typeclass. The Sub typeclass has only three instances: a is a subtype of a: instance Sub a a where inj = id  a is also a subtype of the sum a :<: b: instance Sub a (a :<: b) where inj = Inl  Finally, if a is a subtype of c, then a is also a subtype of the sum b :<: c: instance Sub a c => Sub a (b :<: c) where inj = Inr . inj  These instances require quite a few GHC extensions including OverlappingInstances (in fact, we have implicitly used many GHC extensions above), but as with data types à la carte, this shouldn’t result in an unexpected behaviour, provided that user never explicitly nests sums. The following function allows us to view a variable from a set v as a polynomial over any wider set of variables w: var :: (Sub v w, Ord (Monomial w o), Num r, Eq w) => v -> Polynomial r w o var = variable . inj  We can now introduce x = var X y = var Y z = var Z  Thus, x is a polynomial over any ring r, over any set of variables w containing X, with respect to any monomial ordering: *Main> :t x x :: (Eq w, Num r, Ord (Monomial w o), Sub X w) => Polynomial r w o  Ditto for y and z. Consequently, for example, x * y + z is a polynomial over any ring r, over any set of variables w containing X, Y, and Z, in particular it is a polynomial over the set of variables X :<: Y :<: Z. Writing separate definitions for X, Y, Z and Enumerable instances is still tedious. Fortunately, we can write a Template Haskell macro allowing us to write $(defineVariables ["X", "Y", "Z"])


See Variable.hs for details.

## Example

Consider the ideal generated by polynomials $x^{10} + x^9y^2$ and $y^8 - x^2y^7$:

ideal :: Ord (Monomial (X :<: Y) o) => [Polynomial Rational (X :<: Y) o]
ideal = [x ^ 10 + x ^ 9 * y ^ 2, y ^ 8 - x ^ 2 * y ^ 7]


Note that ideal is polymorphic in the monomial ordering. Let basis be the Gröbner basis of ideal:

basis :: Ord (Monomial (X :<: Y) o) => [Polynomial Rational (X :<: Y) o]
basis = groebner ideal


We can now compute basis with respect to different monomial orderings:

*Main> basis :: [Polynomial Rational (X :<: Y) Lex]
[Y^15-Y^12,XY^12+Y^14,XY^13+Y^12,X^10+X^9Y^2,-X^2Y^7+Y^8]
*Main> basis :: [Polynomial Rational (X :<: Y) RevLex]
[X^16+X^13,-X^30-X^27,-X^13Y+X^15,-X^14Y-X^13,X^9Y^2+X^10,Y^8-X^2Y^7]
*Main> basis :: [Polynomial Rational (X :<: Y) DegLex]
[Y^14+XY^12,Y^18-X^4Y^13,XY^13+X^2Y^11,XY^17-X^11Y^6,-X^13+XY^12,X^12Y+X^3Y^10,X^9Y^2+X^10,-X^2Y^7+Y^8]
*Main> basis :: [Polynomial Rational (X :<: Y) DegRevLex]
[Y^14+XY^12,Y^18-X^4Y^13,XY^13+X^2Y^11,XY^17-X^11Y^6,-X^13+XY^12,X^12Y+X^3Y^10,X^9Y^2+X^10,-X^2Y^7+Y^8]